with a different load capacitance is used, the crystal is
pulled away from its intended operating frequency, thus
introducing an error in the reference frequency. Crystals
designed to operate with higher differential load capacitance
always pull the reference frequency higher. For example,
a 9.84375MHz crystal designed to operate with a 10pF
load capacitance oscillates at 9.84688MHz with the
MAX7044, causing the transmitter to be transmitting
at 315.1MHz rather than 315.0MHz, an error of about
100kHz, or 320ppm.
In actuality, the oscillator pulls every crystal. The crystal’s
natural frequency is really below its specified frequency,
but when loaded with the specified load capacitance, the
crystal is pulled and oscillates at its specified frequency.
This pulling is already accounted for in the specification of
the load capacitance. Additional pulling can be calculated
if the electrical parameters of the crystal are known. The
frequency pulling is given by:
m6
pcase load case spec
C1 1
f x10
2CCCC
= −
++
where:
fp is the amount the crystal frequency is pulled in ppm.
Cm is the motional capacitance of the crystal.
Ccase (or Co) is the vendor-specified case capacitance
of the crystal.
Cspec is the specified load capacitance.
Cload is the actual load capacitance.
When the crystal is loaded as specified (i.e., Cload = Cspec)
the frequency pulling equals zero.
Output Matching to 50Ω
When matched to a 50Ω system, the MAX7044 PA is
capable of delivering up to +13dBm of output power
at VDD = 2.7V. The output of the PA is an open-drain
transistor that requires external impedance matching
and pullup inductance for proper biasing. The pullup
inductance from PA to VDD serves three main purposes:
it resonates the capacitance of the PA output, provides
biasing for the PA, and becomes a high-frequency choke
to reduce the RF energy coupling into VDD. The recom-
mended output-matching network topology is shown in
the Typical Application Circuit. The matching network
transforms the 50Ω load to approximately 125Ω at the
output of the PA in addition to forming a bandpass filter
that provides attenuation for the higher order harmonics.
Output Matching to
PCB Loop Antenna
In some applications, the MAX7044 power amplifier output
has to be impedance matched to a small-loop antenna.
The antenna is usually fabricated out of a copper trace on
a PCB in a rectangular, circular, or square pattern. The
antenna will have an impedance that consists of a lossy
component and a radiative component. To achieve high
radiating efficiency, the radiative component should be as
high as possible, while minimizing the lossy component.
In addition, the loop antenna will have an inherent loop
inductance associated with it (assuming the antenna
is terminated to ground). For example, in a typical
application, the radiative impedance is less than 0.5Ω, the
lossy impedance is less than 0.7Ω, and the inductance is
approximately 50nH to 100nH.
The objective of the matching network is to match the
power amplifier output to the small-loop antenna. The
matching components thus transform the low radiative
and resistive parts of the antenna into the much higher
value of the PA output. This gives higher efficiency. The
low radiative and lossy components of the small-loop
antenna result in a higher Q matching network than the
50Ω network; thus, the harmonics are lower.
Layout Considerations
A properly designed PCB is an essential part of any
RF/microwave circuit. At the power amplifier output,
use controlled-impedance lines and keep them as short
as possible to minimize losses and radiation. At high
frequencies, trace lengths that are approximately 1/20 the
wavelength or longer become antennas. For example, a
2in trace at 315MHz can act as an antenna.
Keeping the traces short also reduces parasitic
inductance. Generally, 1in of PCB trace adds about 20nH
of parasitic inductance. The parasitic inductance can
have a dramatic effect on the effective inductance. For
example, a 0.5in trace connecting a 100nH inductor adds
an extra 10nH of inductance, or 10%.
To reduce the parasitic inductance, use wider traces and a
solid ground or power plane below the signal traces. Using
a solid ground plane can reduce the parasitic inductance
from approximately 20nH/in to 7nH/in. Also, use low-
inductance connections to ground on all GND pins, and
place decoupling capacitors close to all VDD connections.
MAX7044 300MHz to 450MHz High-Efciency,
Crystal-Based +13dBm ASK Transmitter
www.maximintegrated.com Maxim Integrated
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